Dept. of Archaeology - Master's degree
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Item Open Access Absolute and relative dating of Hallan Çemi Tepesi(Bilkent University, 2007) Hughes, EricaThis thesis challenges the claim that Hallan Çemi (near Batman in Southeastern Turkey) was occupied during the Epipaleolithic (11th millennium BP). While techno-typological analyses of some objects, chipped stone in particular, appear to place the site’s occupation within the 11th millennium, the iconography etched into ground stone and worked bone is too similar to PPNB sites in the Urfa Plain to ignore. The excavator himself has provided various descriptions of the site, from Epipaleolithic to Aceramic Neolithic. This terminological discrepancy reflects not only on the problem of dating Hallan Çemi, but also on the larger issue of how one should describe the prehistory of Southeastern Anatolia. The latter problems are claimed to be the combined product of a) the relatively few sites within the region with which to contextualize Hallan Çemi and construct a local chrono-cultural scheme, and b) the related issue of imposing terminologies from other regions which may not be appropriate for Southeastern Anatolia.Item Open Access The Antakya Sarcophagus : design elements and the chronology of the Docimeum columnar sarcophagi(Bilkent University, 2003) Öğüş, EsenThis thesis analyses the Antakya Sarcophagus within the context of other Docimeum columnar sarcophagi. The figured and architectural decoration of the Antakya Sarcophagus is described in detail, and a brief account of its contents is presented. The thesis also discusses the prototypes and the identification of the figure types and the affinity of these figure types to those on the comparable columnar sarcophagi. Finally, a production date for the Antakya Sarcophagus is proposed, and the controversies related to the accepted chronology of Docimeum columnar sarcophagi are demonstrated.Item Open Access The archaeology and history of Selinus from its origins to the reign of Diocletian(Bilkent University, 1999) De'Block, Jason RichardThe archaeology and history of the less important centers of antiquity in the eastern Mediterranean has been a subject that has been generally neglected by modern scholarship. Until recently much study in the field of archaeology has concentrated on the larger more urban centers. However much information about life in the past can be gleaned from such 'less important' places. This work hopes to begin to fill the gap in such scholarship. The site covered here is only one of many which could benefit from similar treatment and much more work needs to be done before adequate comparisons can be drawn and a suitably complex picture of the character of such sites can be made. We do not know when the origin of settlement began at Selin us, but it is referred to as early as the 6th century BC. From there the settlement and the region it is located in receive scant mention. By the pt century AD Selinus had reached what is perhaps the apex of its development. Urbanisation under the Romans rendered many improvements to the city and a majority of the materials remaining on the site reflect this. This work will summarise the history and archaeology of Selinus until the reign of the emperor Diocletian and will hopefully serve as an example of the character of small-scale settlement in Classical antiquity.Item Open Access Asardibi (Casara), a classical, hellenistic and early Roman harbor in the Rhodian Peraea(Bilkent University, 1997) Devrim Atauz, AyşeCasara is an ancient town on the Bozbumn peninsula, the ancient Loryma peninsula on the southwestern coast of Turkey. The site has been visited by modem scholars for general epigraphic surveys since the end of the nineteenth century, and the inscriptions have been published. The last scholarly visit to the site was by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology survey team, in 1982, who surveyed the underwater remains on the northern harbor of the city: Asardibi. The pottery remains found at Asardibi, in accordance with the underwater material found at Serçe Limanı, the southern harbor of the city of Casara, and the inscriptions studied from the site yielded the period of occupation of the site, between the fourth century B.C. and the second century A.D.. The research about the political and administrative status of the region, known as the Rhodian Peraea, demonstrates the importance and the historical context of Casara, being a Peraean deme center during its period of occupation. Considering the general maritime traffic of the^period, Casara was on the main trade routes and functioned as a Rhodian harbor on the mainland. In addition, due to its strategic position on the isthmus of the Loryma peninsula it was a local harbor serving the local traffic of the Incorporated Peraea. The investigation of the natural and human resources of the Casaran territory in antiquity completes the general picture and demonstrates that Casara and other towns in the Incorporated Rhodian Peraea served as places to provide manpower for the operation of the Rhodian navy.Item Open Access Aspects of the ancient economy in West-Central Turkey in the first millennium BC(Bilkent University, 2002) Çonka, SevilThe Iron Age sites, Gordion and Kalehöyük are studied in their environmental settings in the regional context of Central Anatolia to present an overview of ancient subsistence economy. The purpose of selecting two different sites is to determine the role of the physical differences of their environments on shaping the regulation of agricultural activities. This thesis attempts to correlate all lines of available environmental and subsistence data from excavations and surveys with the present day land use analysis and ethnographic researches. It is hoped that through a comparison of available data from these two sites that a better understanding of ancient agricultural systems can be determined. The results obtained from several sources indicate that the ecological variables are the basis of the subsistence economy and economic strategies of the ancient inhabitants of Gordion and Kalehöyük.Item Open Access Burial customs of Clazomenae in the iron age (1100-500 BC)(Bilkent University, 2010) Ulusoy, PolatThe present work is a study on the burial customs of Clazomenae in the Iron Age and Archaic period. Special attention is given to Clazomenae, since it yielded significant information from the Protogeometric to the end of the Archaic period. The major aim here is to collect the specific grave and necropolis information and try to interpret them for reaching more holistic conclusions about the burial customs of Clazomenae. This work introduces the burials, burial grounds, and cemeteries of Clazomenae from the Protogeometric to the end of the Archaic period with respect to grave types, grave goods, burial practices, gender, and age. One crucial aim of this work is to understand settlement and necropolis relationship in different periods by the means of the location of the burial grounds; the significance of the extension, development, and changing burial customs of specific cemeteries and their importance with regards to the settlement pattern; and the importance of the continuity, discontinuity, and change of burial grounds through the periods.Item Open Access Caveat emptor : the intellectual consequences of undocumented excavation, with special reference to Roman period archaeological material from Turkey(Bilkent University, 2000) Haley, Shannon M.This paper explores how undocumented excavation affects archaeological research. Roman period remains in Anatolia are often victim to undocumented excavation. The problem is extensive and reflects the modern esteem for classical antiquities. Undocumented excavation has many negative effects. It changes site topography and stratigraphy and results in the loss of an artefact’s archaeological context. The problems presented by undocumented excavation are explored in tliree different case studies. The first chapter studies sculptures attributed to the sites of Perge and Boubon. The second chapter focuses on third century coin hoards attributed to a var iety of sites in Anatolia. The third chapter discusses the mosaics of Zeugma and Antioch. The study of these different bodies of evidence demonstrated that undocumented excavation presents very complex problems for archaeological research. The loss of archaeological context means there is no way for a scholar to verify an artefact’s authenticity. The attribution of an artefact to a specific site may be based on a scholar’s expectation of where such an artefact should be found. In this way, unprovenanced material corrupts the data available to the archaeologist. Over time, this results in the acceptance of beliefs about the role of these artefacts in the past, even though these beliefs rest on data that is far from secure.Item Open Access Ceramic workshops in Hellenistic and Roman Anatolia : production characteristics and regional comparisons(Bilkent University, 2013) Sökeli, HevesThis thesis aims to study local ceramic productions in Anatolia during the Hellenistic and the Roman periods. It analyzes the ceramic productions of Phocaea, Magnesia ad Maeandrum and Cnidus in the western coast, Sagalassos in the inner Anatolia, and Sinope in the southern Black sea region. The aim of the thesis is to examine whether it is possible to group shape production geographically in Anatolia and to detect whether local centers influenced each other or if external influence can be recognized, for example from Athens. The thesis shows there are regional similarities between the workshops of different regions in Anatolia during the Hellenistic period and there was an interaction of some popular shapes and decorations between the productions of the workshops of Athens and Anatolia. In the Roman period, there are regional differences in the production of the same shapes and Athens loss its influence on the shapes of Anatolia.Item Open Access Changing perceptions of sculptural polychromy in Europe: from Ancient Greece to the 21st century(Bilkent University, 2021-06) Uçar Sarıyıldız, DilaraThis thesis examines the perception of polychromy in Greek sculptures over different periods by using archaeological and art historical data. To examine the usage of polychromy in Antiquity, ancient sources and technological methods have been assessed. The aim of this research is to understand the perception of color in the Greek period and to pinpoint the time of when this perception changed looking at a timespan from the Renaissance to the present. This studied identified possible motivations for the use of color in Greek sculptures: visibility, realism, meaning, completion, and tradition. It also revealed possible reasons for the rejection of color in the Renaissance and subsequent periods were also understood: contempt towards the Middle Ages, admiration for Antiquity, and establishment of a new tradition.Item Open Access The church at Choma (Hacımusalar, Elmalı-Antalya) and its materials(Bilkent University, 2001) Arıkan, Suna ÇağaptayThis thesis evaluates the evidence for the churches that have been excavated between 1998 and 2000 on the mound of Hacımusalar Höyük in the Elmalı plain in northern Lycia, a site that has been identified with the Choma known from ancient documentary sources. Three churches have been identified, constructed consecutively in the same location on the mound, the first a basilica with a triconch chapel, the second a triconch church, and the third a small church that has basically a cross-insquare plan. The plans of the churches are discussed, as well as their architectural decoration, wall paintings, mosaics, liturgical objects and pottery, using comparative material from other sites in Lycia and elsewhere to attempt to date the structures and place them within their context in Byzantine Anatolia. Of particular significance are the wall paintings and mosaics, which rarely survive in provincial churches. Despite the limitations posed mainly by the lack of published comparanda and the fact that the excavation is not yet completed, it is hoped that the presentation and discussion of this material will be a step towards a better understanding of the Byzantine period and Christianity in Choma, Lycia and the provinces in general.Item Open Access Community archaeology in Pakistan: three sites in Gandhara as a case study(Bilkent University, 2018-05) Siddiqui, Rida A.This thesis examines the scope of conducting a community archaeology project at three archaeological sites from Gandhara, Pakistan; Mankiala, Mohra Muradu and Jandial. In analyzing this possibility, the context in which such a project would be conducted is presented through a look at Pakistan’s history of archaeological research, as well as a variety of factors that have contributed to the decrepit state of Pakistan’s cultural heritage, today. Community archaeology as a method of archaeological research is discussed in detail, along with its meaning as understood by various scholars, and its importance within archaeological research today. The proposed methodology is then presented; the Community Archaeology Project Quseir (CAPQ) methodology, devised for a project in Quseir, Egypt, has become a primary guiding principle for community archaeology projects worldwide. Its applicability in Pakistan is examined in this study through fieldwork conducted in the form of one-on-one interviews with people residing around the three selected sites, as well as external observations made during site visits. This anthropological fieldwork aimed to explore how interviewees perceived the sites they live around, through conversations about their knowledge regarding the respective sites, and their views on tourism, archaeological research, and possible educational interventions which can aid in enhancing their knowledge, experience and interpretation of archaeological sites. The results of this fieldwork display, amongst other findings, a heightened interest in the aforementioned educational interventions, a positive sign for future archaeological research in the country.Item Open Access Continuity and change: an annales approach to the Late Chalcolithic period in North Mesopotamia(Bilkent University, 2018-05) Can, ŞakirThe semantic context of the cultural patterns of the past is beyond our perception. This fact, regardless of time and space, thus, makes any type of social organizations that existed in the past complex and transitive. Bearing in mind this fact, this study aimed to analyze the Late Chalcolithic period (ca. 4500-3000 BC) in an extensive area of north Mesopotamia with archaeological traces of an increasing socio-cultural, socio-economic, and socio-political complexity through the Annales School of History paradigm, which divides time into geographical time, social time, and individual time. Within this division, geographical time (longue durée) refers to the role of environment and geography on the nature and development of the northern communities at the regional level. Social time (conjoncture) provides a perceptible rhythm of indigenous cultural phenomena in north Mesopotamia (ca. 4500-3700 BC) prior to the Uruk culture of southern Mesopotamian origin, and a certain degree of social mobility, history of communities and their ideologies (mentalité) after the Uruk expansion (ca 3700-3000 BC). The Uruk phenomenon in north Mesopotamia can be perceived in social time. At another level, individual time (évènement), which takes historical events as the reference, coincides with the establishment of the Uruk colonies at Tell Sheikh Hassan, Habuba Kabira Süd, and Jebel Aruda in the Middle Euphrates Basin. In comparison with the earlier assessments, this analysis shows that an interpretation of continuity and change in total history (histoire totale) of the Late Chalcolithic period of north Mesopotamia is possible with the Annales paradigm. It also shows that north Mesopotamia, in the long term, hosted a number of cultural patterns; thus, provides culturally accumulated continuity, while different cultural influences and interactions, in several cases, played a key role in cultural changes. The interpretation of this thesis based on archaeological excavations, surveys carried out in north Mesopotamia, as well as previous views on the Late Chalcolithic period.Item Open Access The cult of Iupiter Dolichenus : origins and iconography(Bilkent University, 2007) Kuşseven, PınarThis thesis examines the iconography of Roman deity Iupiter Dolichenus in order to gain an insight into cult’s hidden meaning. The image of weather gods from Iron Age to the Greco-Roman Period in Northern Syria is also investigated since the representation of Iupiter Dolichenus was unique in the West and the close similarity of the representation of the god with the local weather gods of Northern Syria may point to the continuity of the cult. In the absence of ancient literary sources, the other gods, goddesses and symbols represented in Dolichenian cult objects may express a part of Dolichenian doctrine. This is why they are included into this study.Item Open Access The Cypro-Anatolian connections in the late Bronze Age(Bilkent University, 1999) Kozal, EkinThe relations between Anatolia and C3^rus in the Late Bronze Age have been neglected in contrast to the growing interest in the Eastern Mediterranean trade. The main goal of this thesis is to bring this subject to light. These relations were attested in the Hittite sources for two centuries (ca. 1400- 1200 B.C.) and in Ugaritic sources in the 13th century B.C. Within this historical framework the connections are reviewed in different perspectives. Correlations between the historical sources and the archaeological evidence are proposed. In this period, friendly relations existed, wliich were implied in the written texts until the time shortly before the collapse of the Hittite Empire. From the 15th until the 13th centuries White Slip and Base Ring wares were exported to Cilicia, whereas in the 13th century the Red Lustrous Wheelmade Ware was transported to the Hittite capital thiough the Göksu Valley. The new ceramic distribution pattern in the 13th century shows the increase of the Hittites’ interest in overseas activities. Besides, this was the time when the Hittite capital was moved to the land of Tarhuntassa. At the end of the 13th century B.C. with the military intervention of Hittites, Cyprus came under the control of the Hittite Empire. This was demonstrated in the archaeological record by the Hittite small finds in Cyprus. In this preliminary study I have also touched upon the geophysical features of southern Anatolia and Cyprus, the distribution of the Late Bronze Age sites in both places, the climatic factors and conditions, which play a very important role in the ancient navigation and the physical layout of the coastlines. Conclusively, a synthesis of these various factors are put forward.Item Open Access Early bronze age daggers in Central Anatolia(Bilkent University, 2012) Arcan, BurakThe rapid development of metal technologies in the Early Bronze Age had played an important part in the “urbanization” of Anatolia. Daggers were the first and the most common metallurgical products in this new chapter of human history. The morphology (typology), chronology and the distribution of the Early Bronze Age daggers will offer evidence for the regional and the interregional interactions of Central Anatolia. The cultural context of daggers and the associated material presented support the conclusion that Central Anatolia formed a cohesive cultural sphere which is reflected in dagger typologies.Item Open Access Elmali plain : a review of its environmental setting and archaeological settlements(Bilkent University, 1999) İlseven, YaseminThe Elm alı Plain is located in Northern Lycia, in the Teke Peninsula o f Southwest Anatolia. The plain is geographically in a transitional zone between the forest rich Taurus Mountains and the Highlands of the Anatolian Plateau. Being a fertile upland basin, it is the closest large arable land mass to coastal Lycia. This thesis aims to place the Elmalı Plain in an environmental context and to compile the information regarding the history and archaeology o f the region starting with the Prehistoric periods up to the Islamic occupation of the plain. It evaluates the present evidence o f literary sources, epigraphy, numismatic and archaeological remains. The thesis will also trace the history of traveUers accounts and scholarly research done in the region, and will try to understand the gaps that exist in our archaeological knowledge and identify issues that can be pursued further. The Elmalı Plain, with its natural resources, was able to hold substantial populations, which is evident from the archaeological records for periods such as the Chalcolithic, Early Bronze Age, Iron Ages and the Roman period. Existing evidence far from suggests a definite continuity or discontinuity for all the historical periods, on which future investigations, especially the ongoing project o f Hacim usalar excavations and survey, will throw more light. The present archaeological evidence for the Elm alı Plain suggests that the region, rather than being a remote upland region, was a transitional zone, both culturally and geographically between coastal Lycia and the upland regions o f Kibyra, Kabalia and Pisidia.Item Open Access Evaluating the Oylum Höyük MBA painted ware within the frameworks of the Syro-Cilician, Levantine and Khabur painted ceramic cultures(Bilkent University, 2008) Çatalbaş, MertOylum Höyük, located on the bank of the Akpınar River in modern Kilis region, is an important mound, with cultural connections to North Syria, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. As a consequence of its advantaged position, Oylum has been inhabited from at least the 4th millennium BC to the Hellenistic period. Oylum Höyük, as part of the second millennium trade traffic, has a decorated Middle Bronze ceramic assemblage that can be used to comprehend the relations and distinctions among its neighboring cultures. In the preparation of this thesis, the main intent is to study the parallelism between Oylum painted examples and other early 2nd millennium BC decorated ceramic traditions, e.g. Khabur, Syro-Cilician, and Levantine Painted wares. The results may be helpful to establish the identification of the Middle Bronze Age painted ceramic groups of Oylum and to comprehend the cultural characteristics of the settlement in this period.Item Open Access Figural Anatolian stamp seals from three Assyrian colony period sites : Karahöyük-Konya, Acemhöyük and Kültepe(Bilkent University, 2016-09) Kuncewicz, Katarzyna.The first half of the 2nd millennium B.C. in Anatolia is marked by the presence of Assyrian merchants, who settled down in the region. The foreigners introduced a new glyptic tradition to Anatolian inhabitants, who up to that moment were using solely stamp seals. These encounters and daily cohabitation resulted in the emergence of four different styles in glyptic present in the Assyrian Colony Period. The analyzed stamp seals from Karahöyük-Konya, Acemhöyük, and Kültepe belong to the Anatolian Style group. However, each site had its own approach to the themes and motifs. The seals from Karahöyük-Konya and Kültepe focus on the various animal representations. However, in the case of Kültepe seals the phenomenon of horror vacui can be observed, whereas the layout in Karahöyük-Konya is more organized. The deity figures in both sites tend to be simply executed, therefore it is difficult to identify the nature of the divinity. On the other hand, the anthropomorphic divine iconography is predominant in Acemhöyük, showing the most sophisticated and elaborate figures, who are often accompanied with attributes. Moreover, the seals from Acemhöyük are also very fond of mythological creatures. Finally, the differences between local cylinder and stamp glyptic is also noticeable. The motifs and themes like the figures of War god, Weather god, bull, bull altar, and combat scenes popular in the cylinder seals are missing in their Anatolian stamped counterparts.Item Open Access Figural motifs on Halaf pottery: an iconographical study of late neolithic society in Northern Mesopotamia(Bilkent University, 2019-08) İpek, BahattinInformation about the lifestyles of ancient cultures, their daily activities, religious beliefs, close or long distance trade relations, or cultural interactions come from their products. Ancient material productions can be briefly mentioned by examples such as stone tools, pottery, and secular or religious buildings. Thanks to excavations or socio-cultural surveys, we are able to make comments on the ancient societies' materials. Wall paintings, motifs or scenes on pottery provide us important information about the lifestyles or religious beliefs of ancient cultures. The aim of this thesis is to give information about the motifs on Halaf pottery, which belongs to the Late Neolithic period and spread over a wide area in Northern Mesopotamia. First, the socio-cultural structure of the Halaf culture will be examined. It will turn to animal motifs, human motifs or narrative scenes on Halaf pottery for the information about Halaf culture that it presents to us. It also examines the role of dancing figures and feasting in the Halaf culture.Item Open Access Foreigners and foreignness in Hittite Anatolia(Bilkent University, 2021-09) Dağbaşı, EgeIdentifying foreigners and foreign elements, and understanding how foreignness was conceptualized in the Hittite world is challenging. Since the Hittite society was complex and, it included various different languages and possible ethnic groups, it is not obvious in the textual or archaeological record which individuals and groups were accepted and which were perceived as unfamiliar to the society. Just as there were no particular words to indicate locals, citizens or Hittites in general, there is not a single word to mark foreigners in the Hittite language. Several different words were used to distinguish marginalized groups and individuals. Archaeological records as much as the textual sources provide insights into the presence and perception of the foreigners in Hittite society. Foreign artefacts in Hatti represents the connections and contacts of the Hittites with their surrounding states. Hittite relations with Azzi-Ḫayaša are a good example to comprehend the attitudes of the Hittite towards a region and a state that they might have perceived as foreign.